Compare and contrast the historical methods

Compare and contrast the historical methods Compare and contrast the historical methods, interests, and objectives of Herodotus and Thucydides. He said you might consider the sort of writing(narrative, description, authorial analysis, interest in accuracy, etc.) and the authors objectives in writing the history. Herodotus and Thucydides the original fathers of Greek Historiography are regarded as the first two historians. Writing hundreds of years after Homer, Herodotus compiled his History (1) based on oral accounts and myth. A genial storyteller, Herodotus did not regard his writing as epic poetry. The History, which explores centuries of dramatic interaction between the ancient Greeks and the Persian Empire, culminating with the Persian Wars in the early fifth century BC, is a vast compilation of the history, customs and beliefs of the Greeks and â€Å"barbarians†. Herodotus historical reliability depends on that of his predecessors, as his historical account is a composition that includes their notions of history, geography, natural history and anthropology, in a political and literary context. A generation after Herodotus, Thucydides, who strove for objectivity, wrote about political and military events that occurred during his lifetime, with a close account of the war between Athens and Sparta in late fifth century BC. Thucydides history of The Peloponnesian War (2) is the composition of an astute political and military historian. In a disciplined and methodical style, his work analyzes issues related to the wars, with little digression into other areas. Since fifth century BC, Western tradition of historical writing and inquiry developed beyond conventions established by Herodotus and Thucydides. In the twenty-five centuries that followed, many historians shared Thucydides preference for contemporary history and local politics, others drew upon both original archetypes, and some rejected both methodologies. While in the course of developing modern objectivity historians contributed new theoretical ideas, they also continued â€Å"historical inquiry in the spirit of especially Herodotus, that is, the art of asking perhaps naive (if not objective) questions about human behavior in time. (3) Similarities and differences between Herodotus and Thucydides histories have been the topic of much research and dissertation in classic scholarship analyzing their work on issues of historical truth and interpretation, historys relation to myth, the fascination with origins, the differences between chronicle and narrative history. In order to compare and contrast the historical methods, interests, and objectives of Herodotus and Thucydides we must examine the characteristics of their literary method, including the narrative, description, authorial analysis, interest in accuracy, etc., and their historical inquiry the authors objectives in writing the history. The context in which history is written is very important because the particular circumstances of time and place, which are reflected in the writers message become part of the message, received and interpreted by the reader. Thucydides, for example, was conspicuously and painfully the product of a political crisis and his work cannot be extricated from his own intense and ultimately tragic experiences. (4) Herodotus and Thucydides innovative methods of conveying the experience of historical events and their interpretation have emerged in the context of traditionally vibrant ancient Greek culture. A range of literary allusions to myth and folklore, to earlier epic, to lyric and epigram, the pervasive influence of Homer found in the work of Herodotus, â€Å"the broad lines of The History shaped like those of a Greek tragedy† (5), are explicitly relevant with regard to the historians connection with his cultural and literary milieu â€Å"for this History of mine has from the beginning sought out the supplementary to the main argument†. (6) Scholarly investigation of the Peloponnesian War has revealed plausible â€Å"intertextual† connections between the dense text of Thucydides and the epic of his predecessors. (7) One relevant example of such connection is said to occur in structuring some of Thucydides plot-patterns, like the similarities between Nikias letter and Agamemnons speech, in Homer or that between the Athenians expedition to Sicily and Homers Odysseus return to Ithaca. (8) Another â€Å"intertextual† connection has been noted in the similar choice of words and structuring of the accounts between Herodotus narrative of the Persian invasion of Greece and Thucydides narrative of the Sicilian expedition (9) One particular characteristic of Thucydides writing style is the pervasive interspersing of speeches within the body of his work. A very famous one is Pericles Funeral Oration, which became the model for many later speeches, and was very well known in antiquity. A major distinction between Herodotus and Thucydides writings consists in their different assessment of what history is. Herodotus concept of history, focusing on the diversity of the universal human experience, contains an expansive field of human inquiry that, later, became to be known as Cultural History. Thucydides, who presented history in context, focusing on political and military facts and events of his times, has been credited with writing the original â€Å"scientific† history. Herodotus and Thucydides employ different strategies in recounting the story of history. Herodotus narrates centuries of history within the mystery of cultures while Thucydides employs a reductionist and analytical strategy. Herodotus and Thucydides works, which differ in many ways, also share many characteristics like the magnitude of their prose, the elusiveness with respect to meanings, the contribution to the understanding of ancient societies, their subject matter dealing with causes and course of war, their fascination with â€Å"origins†, or their vision of civilization and barbarians. Although Herodotus eclectic manner of gathering information stands in contrast to Thucydides problem-oriented style, they both regard telling the truth as mandatory to historical method. When comparing Herodotus method with that of Thucydides we notice that Herodotus appears throughout The History as an uncommitted Homeric observer, famously taking the risk of reporting hearsay as evidence, and occasionally crediting the gods with causes and outcomes of historical events. By contrast, Thucydides historical method is based on precise, verifiable evidence and reflects a systematic understanding of the human and military politics. He devoted most of his adult life to the chronicles of the Peloponnesian War and sought all available evidence, in the form of written documents and eyewitness reports, to construct his account. As Herodotus says, in his introduction to The Histories: â€Å"I, Herodotus of Halicarnassus, am here setting forth my history, that time may not draw the color from what man has brought into being, nor those great and wonderful deeds, manifested by both Greeks and barbarians, fail of their report, and, together with all this, the reason why they fought one another.† (10) Thucydides, on the other hand, tells us: â€Å"Thucydides, an Athenian, wrote the history of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians, beginning at the moment that it broke out and believing that it would be a great war, and more worthy of relation than any that had preceded it. This belief was not without its grounds. The preparations of both the combatants were in every department in the last state of perfection; and he could see the rest of the Hellenic race taking sides in the quarrel; those who delayed those who delayed doing so at once having it in contemplation. Indeed this was the greatest movement yet known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but of a large part of the barbarian world I had almost said of mankind. For though the events of remote antiquity, and even those that more immediately precede the war , could not from lapse of time be clearly ascertained, yet the evidences which an inquiry carried as far back as was practicable leads me to trust , all point to the conclusion that there was no thing on a great scale , either in war or in other matters.†(11) The difference between Herodotus introduction and that of Thucydides is as remarkable as the difference in their method of historical inquiry. Herodotus method of inquiry consisted of relying on other peoples testimony, customs and laws to speculate about the sincerity and motives of the sources upon which he compiled the accounts of his History. For example, Herodotus challenges Homers assertion that the breaking of guest-friend taboo and the abduction of Helen were at the root of the Trojan conflict. But Herodotus does not completely reject Homers story.He only calls into question Homers story by invoking different versions of that story. But the speculations about the original story cast sufficient enough doubt to annihilate its merits, similarly to the way in which, throughout the Histories, seemingly small events cause colossal disasters. For example, Book 2: 112 through 2: 121 corroborate how Herodotus gathered evidence to support Homers story of the war at Troy which in text is referred to under the name of lium. Herodotus tells us, â€Å"I asked of the priests, they told me that what had happened to Helen, was this . . .† (12) â€Å"This is how Helen came to Proteus, according to what the priests say.And I think Homer knew the tale; but inasmuch as it was not so suitable for epic poetry as the other, he used the latter and consciously abandoned the one here told.† (13) Then Herodotus proceeds to explain his reasons for allowing the other evidence to prevail over that of Homers account: â€Å"This, is the story the Egyptian priests told. I myself concur in what they have said of gave me of Helen. My reasoning is as follows: if Helen had been in Ilium she would have been given back to the Greeks whether Alexander wanted it or not. For Priam was not so besotted , nor the rest of his kinsfolk, that they would be willing to risk their own bodies, children and city so that Alexander should be with Helen.If, indeed, that had been their sentiment at the first, surely later when many of the rest of the Trojans had perished in their encounters with the Greeks, and when, in Priams own case, two or three of his sons on every occasion of battle if we are to speak on the testimony of the epic poets when all these matters of such consequence happened, I am confident that, if it had been Priam himself who was living with Helen, he would have given her back to the Greeks, if thereby he could have been quit of the troubles that were upon him. It was not even as if the kingship wa s going to devolve upon Alexander, so that, Priam now being old, things were at Alexanders disposal; for it was Hector, older than Alexander and more of a man, who would have taken over the kingdom on Priam s death; and Hector it would certainly not have suited to comply with his erring brother and that, too, one who had caused great disasters to him personally and to all the rest of the Trojans. No, the Trojans did not have Helen to give back, and when they spoke the truth, the Greeks did not believe them; and the reason of this, if I may declare my opinion, was that the Divine was laying his plans that, as the Trojans perished in utter destruction, they might make this thing manifest to all the world: that for great wrongdoings great also are the punishments from the gods. That is what I think, and that is what I am saying here.† (14) Contrary to Herodotus, Thucydides offers rational explanations as evidence for his claims and for the causes of later events that could be reasonably expected on the basis of that evidence. For example, Thucydides attempts to justify the authoritative claim made in the introduction about the Peloponnesian war that had just started being more important than the wars before it a real turning point in history. Thucydides investigates the Trojan War and the Persian wars for evidence that supports his views.His method of inquiry consists in rigorous investigation attempting to provide rational accounts through an innovative use of empirical data, simulating the methods used by Greek sciences of the time in the investigation of natural phenomena. Thucydides rejects Herodotus invocations of supernatural explanation when accounting for historical conflict. Instead, Thucydides uses a scientific, inductive method of inquiry to construct his theory of history. He considers the actual events, examines the constraints and options available to the protagonists, and then searches for possible consequences of the events in order to speculate about the causes of the initial event. His notions are always open to revision, without necessarily rejecting his previous explanations, but rather expanding his explanation in order to include this new information. REFERENCES: Herodotus, The History, translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987 Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, translated by Richard Crawley, Everymans Library, London Toronto, J.M.Dent Sons, Ltd, New York E.P.Dutton Co, 1926 Donald R. Kelley. Faces of History: Historical Inquiry from Herodotus to Herder. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 268 Donald R. Kelley. Faces of History: Historical Inquiry from Herodotus to Herder. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 6 Donald R. Kelley. Faces of History: Historical Inquiry from Herodotus to Herder. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998, p. 12 Herodotus, The History, translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987, 4.30, p.290 S. Hornblower, Narratology and Narrative Techniques in Thucydides, in id. (ed.), Greek Historiography (Oxford, 1994), 131-66 Tim Rood Thucydides: Narrative and Explanation (Oxford, 1998), 194-5 Tim Rood, Thucydides Persian Wars, in C. S. Kraus (ed.), The Limits of Historiography: Genre and Narrative in Ancient Historical Texts (Leiden, 1999), 141-68 Herodotus, The History. translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987 , Book 1: 1, p. 33 Thucydides, The Peloponnesian War, translated by Richard Crawley, Everymans Library, London Toronto, J.M.Dent Sons, Ltd, New York E.P.Dutton Co, 1926, Book 1, pp. 1-2 Herodotus, The History. translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987 , Book 2: 113, p. 117 Herodotus, The History. translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987 , Book 2: 116, p.178 Herodotus, The History. translated by David Green, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 1987, Book 2: 120, pp.180-181

The Battle of Gettysburg

The Battle of Gettysburg (local i/ t? sb? r? /, with an /s/ sound),[6] was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War[7] and is often described as the war's turning point. [8] Union Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's invasion of the North.After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj.Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry.However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of town to the hills just to the south. On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard .On the Union right, demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge.The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great losses to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle. That November, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address. The Battle of Gettysburg The Battle of Gettysburg (local i/ t? sb? r? /, with an /s/ sound),[6] was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War[7] and is often described as the war's turning point. [8] Union Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's invasion of the North.After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj.Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry.However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of town to the hills just to the south. On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard .On the Union right, demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge.The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great losses to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle. That November, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.

The 30-Second Trick for Practice Argumentative Essay Topics for College

The 30-Second Trick for Practice Argumentative Essay Topics for College Whatever the case, it's always a better idea to work with a topic that is very close to you and that you get a genuine interest in, rather than just picking a random topic. Sure, with this kind of a big number of topics to select from, picking just one may be challenging. Since you can see, a number of the topics listed are new and handle the recent issues happening in the World today. Still, figuring out the ideal topic for your essay isn't your only concern for a student. Read the list and stay in mind that interesting topics are a suitable way for an intriguing assignment. It is very important to get started with demonstrating the most important idea of the entire piece so you and your readers are going to be on the identical page. If that's the case, this section will provide you with a comprehensive outline of all of the topics for informative speech touching on this subject. Evidently, you shouldn't purposely choose a topic that will bore your audience. Odds are, all you have to do is relax and locate a topic you're passionate about and, naturally, one that's debatable. At some stage, you're likely to be requested to compose an argumentative essay. When you settle on the subject and select the position on which you will base your essay, the remainder of the job can then begin. In such conditions, essay help is available online where lots of professional writers offer you ideas and motivation to compose essays. Individual schools sometimes need supplemental essays. Colleges can tell whenever your essay is only a form essay. To compose a strong argumentative essay, students should start by familiarizing themselves with a number of the common, and frequently conflicting, positions on the research topic so they can write an educated paper. They often find that most of their work on these essays is done before they even start writing. Learn more about the way the essay is scored. Weave in your perspective to produce your essay unique. Essays are of various sorts. The essay is just one of the key approaches you'll be able to distinguish yourself. You don't need to find super technical with legal argumentative essays, but remember to do your homework on what the recent laws about your preferred topic actually say. It's essential not just to supply the evidence to back up your position but also to refute that of your opponents. It is advised to steer clear of argument essay topics on moral issues because they don't support logical discussion. It's important to select debatable argumentative essay topics since you need opposing points that you are able to counter to your own points. In this specific circumstance, custom made writing is the ideal solution that saves time and energy. Thus, it's important to read corresponding formatting guide. You may trust us to give expert assistance for many of your academic writing needs. Its primary aim is to introduce a specific case to readers and convince them to modify their viewpoints. There are various sorts of conflict on earth, for example, workplace and home conflicts. Normally, having three big arguments to demonstrate your point is sufficient for a convincing paper. The custom is allowed in some states, but it's frowned upon and illegal in a lot more states. Anyway, the law is another extensive field with many issues to go over with your audience. Although college essay is written exclusively by students, businessmen would need to compose an essay paper sooner or later in their career either to tender applications and proposals or to generate project reports. Another reason is to observe how well students argue on unique views and demonstrate understanding of the studied subject. In such a situation, a student must pick a proper topic to write about. Even a student can begin a business online. These essays are supposed to portray your nature and character and to judge your capacity. Our writers use their abilities and abilities to fulfill the wants and necessities of our customers. The value of research in persuasive writing can't be overstated. It is possible to also seek the help of expert writers who provide essay writing services for some fee.

The Nature of Stress Essay - 1263 Words

The Nature of Stress Much of our understanding of the nature of stress can be traced back to the work of Hans Seyle in the 1930s. Seyles research on rats and other animals in the years 1936 and 1950 led him to conclude that when animals are exposed to unpleasant stimuli (for example, injections or extreme temperatures), they all react in the same sort of way. He described this universal response to†¦show more content†¦The final stage is exhaustion; eventually the bodys systems can no longer maintain normal functioning. It is at this point that the initial autonomic nervous system (ANS) symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate etc). The adrenal glan d may be damaged from previous over activity, and the immune system may not be able to cope because production of necessary proteins had been slowed in favour of other needs. The result may be seen in stress-related illnesses, such as ulcers, depression, cardiovascular problems and other mental and physical illnesses. b) Stress may cause physical illness directly (as described by the GAS model) or indirectly, because stressed individuals are more likely to smoke and drink and these habits lead to physical illness - cardiovascular disorders are one of these illnesses. Cardiovascular disorder is defined as any disorder of the heart and circulatory system. A study was conducted investigating the relationship between stress and cardiovascular disorders in 1991 - Krantz et al. The following procedure was used to investigate this. The participants were thirty-nine patients and twelve controls; they were studied whilst performing three different tasks: an arithmetic task, a Stroop task and a task where they simulated public speaking. Each of these tasks was designed to create mild stress. 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